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EXPLAIN & MODEL
THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK FOCUS: REPRESENTATION
Key Points:
- Representation is the way in which aspects of society and social identity, issues and events are re-presented to an audience.
- All media products are constructions, they do not simply reflect the real world and the representations within them are also constructions as they are not real but are often accepted as such by an audience because they give an illusion of reality.
- The creators of media products make choices about how representated through selection and combination.
- The representation is controlled by the product's creators and, as such, encodes values, attitudes and beliefs.
- The repetition by the media of a particular representation may result in that representation being accepted as normal.
- Representations are affected by the context and purpose.
- Media products may construct stereotypes which can be both positive and negative.
- Representations position audiences differently and audience responses may vary.
- Stuart Hall's Representation Theory: Suggests that stereotyping, as a form of representation, reduces people to a few simple characteristics or traits. Stereotyping tends to occur where there are inequalities of power, as subordinate or excluded groups are constructed as different or 'other' (e.g. through ethnocentrism).
- David Gauntlett's Identity Theory: Suggests that while in the past the media tended to convey singular, straightforward messages about the ideal types of male and female identities. The media today offers a more diverse range from which we can pick and mix different ideas to construct our own identities.
- Liesbet Van Zoonen's Feminist Theory: Suggests that media contributes to social change by representing women in non-traditional roles. Suggests the idea that the display of women's bodies as objects to be looked at is a core element of Western patriarchal society.
- bell hooks' Feminist Theory: Suggests the idea that feminism is a struggle to end patriarchal oppression and feminism is a political commitment rather than a lifestyle choice. Suggests pale-skinned women are represented as more desirable in Western media. Suggests that race and class, as well as sex, determine the extent to which individuals are exploited, discriminated against or oppressed.
- Judith Butler (Theory of Gender Performativity): Suggests that identity is performatively constructed by the very 'expressions' that are said to be its results (it is manufactured through a set of acts). Suggests that there is no gender identity behing the expressions of gender. Suggests that performativity is not a singular act but a repetition and a ritual.
- Paul Gilroy (Ethnicity & Postcolonial Theory): Suggests that colonial discourses continue to inform contemporary attitudes to race and ethnicity. Suggests that civilisationism constructs racial hierarchies and sets up binary oppositions based on notions of 'otherness'.
- Construction
- Decoding & Encoding
- Mediation
- Selection & Combination
- Stereotypes
- Context & Purpose
- Tokenism
REPRESENTATIONS OF WOMEN
- The representation of women has developed to reflect changes in society in relation to women's roles, creating more realistic representations and positive role models.
- However, stereotypical representations of women still exist in some media forms and products. These unrealistic representations tend to define women by how they look and their relationships. This creates unattainable aspirations for the audience.
- Where women are constructed in a more positive way, challenging outdated stereotypes, they are seen as more active and have a key role in shaping the narrative. They are defined by what they do, rather than what they have done to them.
- Representations of women change in order to reflect cultural shifts in relation to gender and to satisfy audience expectations.
- Some theorists argue that, while women's roles and representations in the media have changed, they are equally limiting, as women are expected to be 'strong' and demonstrate masculine attributes.
REPRESENTATIONS OF MEN
- While there have been some fundamental changes in representations, masculinity tends to be defined by physical strength, sexual attractiveness, success in relationships and power. This is reflected in some media forms more than others, for example, advertising.
- Other forms, for example the music video, while reinforcing some typical male characteristics, have also been a platform that allows men to present themselves as more rounded, realistic individuals.
- Toxic masculinity referes to harmful behaviour and attitudes commonly associated with some men, such as the need to repress emotions during stressful situations and to act in an aggressively dominant way.
REPRESENTATIONS OF ETHNICITY
- Many areas of the media offer positive representations of minority groups and there are fewer instances whereby these social groups are defined as being 'other'.
- However, the construction of stereotypes and the misrepresentation of these groups remains problematic. The way these groups are presented in the media is often the only experience of these cultures that an audience may encounter and so will accept it as the truth.
- Certain stereotypical representations are reinforced across different forms. This perpetuates a negative representation of these groups. (E.g. young black male defined in terms of gang culture and violence).
REPRESENTATIONS OF ISSUES & EVENTS
- Some newspapers make their dominant ideology evident in their front pages or articles.
- Documentaries can be biased and selective in the information they give about an issue or event.
- Some media forms are creative in the way they represent issues and give a very personal viewpoint.
- In the representation of an issue or event by the media, it is as much to do with what is left out as what is selected for inclusion.
PRACTISE
Compare the representations of men in these two Gillette adverts (see Google assignment), referring to the theoretical framework. The first advert is from 1989 and the second is from 2019. Use key language and signpost evidence using audio visual media language.
